Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (1902–1989) was an Iranian religious leader, political revolutionary, and the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran. As the leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution, he played a pivotal role in overthrowing the Pahlavi monarchy and establishing a theocratic state governed by Islamic principles. His influence extended beyond Iran, shaping modern political Islam and redefining the relationship between religion and state in the Muslim world. This article explores his early life, rise to power, revolutionary ideology, and enduring legacy.
Early Life and Education
Ruhollah Khomeini was born on September 24, 1902, in the small town of Khomein in central Iran. His family was of clerical lineage, and his father, Seyyed Mostafa, was a respected Shi'a scholar. After the death of his father when he was an infant, Khomeini was raised by his mother and aunt, who instilled in him a strong sense of religious devotion.
Khomeini’s education began with traditional Islamic studies, including Quranic interpretation, jurisprudence (fiqh), and philosophy. He studied under prominent clerics in Qom, a major center of Shi'a scholarship. By the 1930s, he had gained recognition as a distinguished scholar and wrote extensively on Islamic philosophy, mysticism, and ethics. His teachings emphasized the spiritual and political dimensions of Islam, laying the groundwork for his revolutionary ideology.
Opposition to the Pahlavi Dynasty
Khomeini’s political activism emerged during the reign of Reza Shah Pahlavi, who sought to modernize and secularize Iran. The Shah’s policies, including restrictions on Islamic practices and the clergy’s influence, alarmed religious leaders. Khomeini became a vocal critic of these reforms, viewing them as a threat to Iran’s Islamic identity.
Under Reza Shah’s son, Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, Khomeini’s opposition intensified. The Shah’s close ties to Western powers, particularly the United States, and his promotion of Western cultural values were seen by Khomeini as acts of subservience that undermined Iran’s sovereignty and Islamic heritage. In 1963, Khomeini delivered a fiery sermon against the Shah’s "White Revolution," a series of reforms that included land redistribution and women’s suffrage. His arrest and subsequent exile in 1964 marked the beginning of his transformation into a symbol of resistance.
Years in Exile
Khomeini spent 15 years in exile, first in Turkey, then in Iraq, and finally in France. During this period, he developed and articulated his revolutionary vision, which centered on the concept of velayat-e faqih (Guardianship of the Jurist). This theory argued that in the absence of the Twelfth Imam, a qualified Islamic jurist should lead the state to ensure adherence to Islamic principles.
Khomeini’s writings and taped sermons were smuggled into Iran, where they galvanized opposition to the Shah. His message appealed to a broad spectrum of Iranians, including religious conservatives, leftists, and nationalist groups, who shared a common desire to end the monarchy. By the late 1970s, widespread dissatisfaction with the Shah’s regime, coupled with economic struggles and political repression, created a revolutionary atmosphere.
The Iranian Revolution
In 1979, the Iranian Revolution reached its climax. Massive protests, strikes, and demonstrations paralyzed the country, and the Shah fled Iran in January. On February 1, Khomeini returned to Tehran to a hero’s welcome. Within weeks, the monarchy was abolished, and Khomeini declared the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran following a national referendum.
Khomeini assumed the role of Supreme Leader, the highest authority in the new theocratic system. The Iranian Constitution institutionalized velayat-e faqih, granting the Supreme Leader extensive powers over both the government and religious institutions. Khomeini’s leadership marked a profound shift in Iran’s political structure, replacing secular nationalism with an Islamic governance model.
Domestic Policies and Governance
Under Khomeini’s rule, Iran underwent significant transformations. The government implemented policies to align society with Islamic principles, including mandatory hijab for women, restrictions on Western cultural influences, and the establishment of religious courts. Education and media were heavily regulated to promote Islamic values.
Khomeini’s governance was marked by both popular support and harsh repression. Many Iranians welcomed the Islamic Republic as a rejection of foreign interference and corruption. However, political opponents, including secularists, liberals, and leftists, faced imprisonment, exile, or execution. The consolidation of power often involved purges and crackdowns on dissent.
The Iran-Iraq War
One of the defining events of Khomeini’s leadership was the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988). The conflict began when Iraqi President Saddam Hussein invaded Iran, seeking to capitalize on the post-revolutionary chaos. Khomeini framed the war as a sacred defense of Islam against external aggression, rallying Iranians to fight in the name of religion and national pride.
The war was devastating, resulting in hundreds of thousands of casualties and extensive destruction on both sides. Despite the immense human and economic cost, Khomeini rejected early ceasefire offers, insisting on achieving total victory. The war ended in a stalemate, with neither side achieving its objectives. For Iran, however, the war solidified Khomeini’s power and reinforced the Islamic Republic’s narrative of resistance.
Legacy and Impact
Khomeini’s death on June 3, 1989, marked the end of an era but not the end of his influence. His legacy continues to shape Iran and the broader Muslim world in several ways:
Political Islam: Khomeini’s ideology inspired Islamic movements worldwide, demonstrating that religion could serve as a powerful force for political change. His model of an Islamic state has been emulated by groups seeking to integrate religion into governance.
Iran’s Foreign Policy: Khomeini’s emphasis on resistance to Western imperialism and support for oppressed Muslims became central to Iran’s foreign policy. The Islamic Republic has supported groups such as Hezbollah and positioned itself as a leader of anti-imperialist and anti-Zionist struggles.
Cultural Transformation: Khomeini’s policies profoundly reshaped Iranian society, promoting a vision of Islamic authenticity while restricting individual freedoms. Debates over these changes continue to shape Iranian politics and culture.
Controversy and Criticism
Khomeini remains a polarizing figure. Supporters view him as a visionary leader who restored Iran’s dignity and independence. Critics, however, highlight the authoritarian nature of his rule, human rights abuses, and the suppression of dissent. The forced imposition of Islamic laws and the marginalization of women and minorities are enduring sources of contention.
Conclusion
Ayatollah Khomeini was a transformative figure whose impact extended far beyond Iran’s borders. His vision of an Islamic state challenged the dominance of secular ideologies and redefined the role of religion in modern governance. While his legacy is contested, there is no denying his profound influence on the course of Iranian and Middle Eastern history. The Islamic Republic he founded continues to navigate the tensions between its revolutionary ideals and the demands of a complex, changing world.
