Terrorism, as a modern term, often evokes images of ideologically driven violence aimed at civilians to instill fear and achieve political or religious ends. While this terminology is contemporary, the phenomenon of violent extremism is not new. In the context of Islamic history, many scholars and historians identify the Kharijites (or Khawarij) as the first group that embodied what would today be considered terrorist ideology and behavior.
The Kharijites emerged during the first century of Islam, in the aftermath of political discord that followed the death of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. Their ideology, actions, and legacy have had lasting repercussions, and many modern extremist groups are often seen as spiritual successors to Kharijite thought.
Origins of the Kharijite Movement
The Kharijites arose during the First Fitna—the first major civil war in Islamic history (656–661 CE). This conflict followed the assassination of the third Caliph, Uthman ibn Affan, and centered around the question of legitimate leadership.
The pivotal moment for the emergence of the Kharijites came during the Battle of Siffin in 657 CE, fought between the fourth Caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib, and Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria. When arbitration was proposed to settle the dispute, a faction within Ali’s camp strongly opposed the idea, insisting that “judgment belongs only to God” (la hukma illa lillah). They saw arbitration as a compromise of divine authority and broke away from Ali’s forces, becoming the Kharijites—meaning "those who seceded" or "those who went out."
Theological Extremism and Takfir
The defining feature of the Kharijites was their extreme and rigid interpretation of Islam, especially regarding sin, governance, and faith. They believed that:
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Any major sin expelled a Muslim from Islam.
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Only a completely righteous person could be the leader of the Muslim community.
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Anyone who did not share their views was a disbeliever (kafir).
This led to the practice of takfir—the act of declaring fellow Muslims as apostates. Once a person was labeled a non-Muslim in their eyes, violence against them became religiously justified, including assassination and mass killing.
Their theological absolutism was accompanied by violent purges. Kharijites began attacking not only political authorities but also ordinary Muslims who disagreed with them. In one notorious incident at Nahrawan, they killed Muslim men, women, and children simply for not sharing their ideology.
The Assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib
The most infamous act of Kharijite violence was the assassination of Caliph Ali. In 661 CE, a Kharijite named Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam murdered Ali while he was leading the dawn prayer in the mosque of Kufa.
Ibn Muljam and other Kharijites had planned to kill the three key leaders of the Muslim world—Ali, Mu'awiya, and Amr ibn al-As—in one coordinated operation. Although only Ali’s assassin succeeded, the plot reveals the depth of their conviction and their willingness to use violence as a tool of ideological purification.
Early Muslim Scholars’ Rejection of Kharijite Ideology
The overwhelming consensus among early Islamic scholars, both Sunni and Shia, was to condemn the Kharijites for their theological deviation and violent behavior. The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ is reported in multiple authentic hadiths to have warned about a group who would be extreme in religion:
“They will recite the Qur'an, but it will not go past their throats. They will exit the religion just as an arrow passes through its target.”
(Sahih al-Bukhari, Sahih Muslim)
This hadith has long been understood by scholars to refer to the Kharijites. Their outward piety—constant fasting, prayer, and Qur’an recitation—was not matched by inner understanding, mercy, or balance.
Classical Islamic scholars such as Imam Abu Hanifa, Imam Malik, Imam Shafi'i, and Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal all condemned the Kharijites and prohibited their ideology. Even when they refrained from calling them disbelievers outright, they viewed their beliefs and actions as deeply dangerous and outside the fold of mainstream Islam.
Why the Kharijites Are Viewed as the First Terrorists
Using modern language, the Kharijites can be seen as proto-terrorists for several reasons:
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Violence Against Civilians: They did not differentiate between combatants and non-combatants. Entire communities were attacked for ideological reasons.
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Religious Justification of Murder: They provided theological rationale for assassinations and massacres, claiming divine legitimacy.
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Polarization and Intolerance: They divided the Muslim community into two groups—true believers (themselves) and apostates (everyone else), creating an “us vs. them” dynamic central to modern extremist rhetoric.
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Targeting Muslim Leadership: Unlike external invaders, their primary targets were Muslims—especially leaders they viewed as impure or corrupt.
The Kharijite Legacy and Modern Parallels
In modern times, extremist groups such as ISIS (Daesh), Al-Qaeda, and other militant outfits have been widely labeled as neo-Kharijites by contemporary Islamic scholars. These groups:
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Practice takfir against Muslims who disagree with them.
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Commit acts of mass violence in the name of “purifying” Islam.
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Use Qur’anic verses out of context to justify atrocities.
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Seek political power under the banner of religious purity.
Prominent scholars like Shaykh Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz, Shaykh Yusuf al-Qaradawi, and Shaykh Hamza Yusuf have all drawn parallels between modern extremists and the Kharijites of old.
Even secular analysts note the ideological rigidity and operational methods of Kharijites as a precursor to many patterns of modern-day terrorism rooted in religious justification.
Conclusion: Lessons from the Kharijite Phenomenon
The emergence of the Kharijites offers a critical lesson for the Muslim world and humanity at large: ideological extremism, when combined with religious certainty and political grievance, can lead to devastating consequences.
While the majority of Muslims—then and now—reject extremism, the Kharijites serve as a reminder of the dangers of:
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Misinterpreting sacred texts.
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Abandoning moral restraint in the name of divine justice.
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Dividing society into rigid binaries of good and evil.
Recognizing the historical reality of the Kharijites is essential not only for understanding early Islamic history but also for confronting the ideologies that threaten social cohesion and global peace today.
Extremism, in any form, is a betrayal of the ethical, spiritual, and compassionate message that lies at the heart of the Islamic tradition.
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